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Mameluco

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Mameluco
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Els mamelucos (مملوك, en àrap: mamlūk, «posseït», participi passiu del verp ملك, malaka, en àrap «posseir», «tindre alguna cosa en propietat») eren membres d'un dels eixèrcits d'esclaus establits durant l'época abasí que més tart es varen fer en el control polític de varis estats musulmans. Varen ser mercenaris esclavizados, soldats esclaus i esclaus libertos no àraps, ètnicament diversos (en la seua majoria de races caucásicas i mongoloide i d'orige eslau, circasiano i, principalment, turc, islamissats) i instruïts militarment, a els qui se'ls assignaven llabors militars i administratives d'alt ranc, i que varen servir com a soldats a les órdens dels distints califes abasíes, i després a les d'atres dinasties #gobernant àraps i otomanes en el món musulmà.[1][2][3][4][5]Institucionalisats com a factor de poder pels califes abasíes, els mamelucos a sovint varen utilisar la seua posició dominant com a líders militars i hacedores de reis a partir de el IX per a fundar els seus propis imperis. Els dos imperis més importants varen ser el Sultanato de Delhi (1206-1526), que en ocasions va aplegar a controlar casi tota l'Índia, i el Sultanato mameluco d'Egipte. Este últim va ser somés pels otomans en 1517—despuix de 267 anys d'existència—pero els mamelucos varen permanéixer en Egipte com l'èlit #gobernant local fins a l'invasió de Napoleón en 1798 i la seua eliminació final a mans de Mehmet Alí (1811).


Si ben els mamelucos eren comprats com a propietat, el seu estatus estava per damunt dels esclaus comuns, a els qui no se'ls permetia portar armes ni realisar certes tasques.[6][7][8][9] En llocs com Egipte, des de la dinastia ayubí fins a l'época de Mehmet Alí d'Egipte, els mamelucos varen ser considerats «verdaders senyors» i «verdaders guerrers», en un estatus social superior al de la població general en Egipte i el Llevant.[10] En cert sentit, eren una sòrt de mercenaris esclavizados.[6][7][8][9][11]En el temps, els mamelucos es varen convertir en una poderosa classe de cavallers militars en vàries societats musulmanes controlada per governants àraps dinàstics.[12][13][14][15][16]

L'us de mamelucos com a component principal dels eixèrcits musulmans es va convertir en una característica distintiva de la civilisació islàmica ya en el IX. La pràctica va ser iniciada en Bagdad pel califa abasí al-Muʿtaṣim (833-842), i pronte es va estendre per tot el món musulmà, caracterisant-se perque els soldats-esclaus explotaven el poder militar que se'ls havia conferit per a fer-se en el control de les autoritats polítiques llegítimes, a sovint només breument, pero a voltes durant periodos asombrosamente llarcs. Aixina, poc despuix del regnat del-Muʿtaṣim, el propi califato va caure víctima de generals mamelucos turcs, capaços de depondre o assessinar califes casi en impunitat. Encara que el califato es va mantindre com a símbol d'autoritat llegítima, el poder real ho eixercien els generals mamelucos, i per a el XIII, els mamelucos havien conseguit establir dinasties pròpies, tant en Egipte com en l'Índia, en les que els sultans eren necessàriament hòmens d'orige esclau o hereus de tals hòmens.


El domini mameluco més durador va ser la classe militar caballeresca de l'Egipte medieval, que es va desenrollar a partir de les files de soldats esclaus.[17][18][19][20] Originalment, els mamelucos eren esclaus d'orige túrquico de l'estepa euroasiàtica,[17][18][19][20][21][22][23] pero l'institució de l'esclavitut militar es va estendre per a incloure a circasianos, abjasios, georgians, armenis, russos i hongaresos, aixina com a pobles dels Balcans com albanés, grecs i sudeslavos (vore Saqaliba). També varen reclutar entre els egipcíacs.[22] El «fenomen mameluco/ghulam»,[24] com l'historiador David Ayalon va denominar la creació de la classe guerrera específica,[25] va ser de gran importància política, durant casi 1000 anys, des del sigle IX fins a principis de el XIX.


Els mamelucos detentaron poder polític i militar, particularment en Egipte i Síria, pero també en l'Imperi otomà, l'Alce, Mesopotamia i Índia. En alguns casos, varen alcançar el ranc de sultà, mentres que en uns atres varen ostentar poder regional com emirs o beys.[16] En particular, en Oriente Pròxim, faccions mamelucas es varen apoderar del sultanato centrat en Egipte i Síria, i ho varen controlar com el Sultanato mameluco (1250-1517).[12][13][14][16] El sultanato mameluco va derrotar al ilkanato en la batalla de Ain Yalut. Al moment de ser conquistat pels otomans (1517) el sultanato mameluco s'estenia per Palestina, Heyaz i Síria.[26] Este sultanato, que va anar el més perdurable de tots els estats mamelucos fins a eixe moment, va ser fundat per una casta militar de cavallers, que va sorgir de les files de soldats esclaus, que eren principalment d'orige túrquico, aixina com també hi havia coptos, circasianos (cherqueses, adigueses, cabardinos), abjasios i georgians

Anteriorment havien lluitat contra els creuats cristians d'Europa occidental entre 1154 i 1169 i entre 1213 i 1221, expulsant-los efectivament d'Egipte i el Llevant. En 1302, el sultanato mameluco va expulsar formalment als últims creuats del Llevant, posant fi a l'era de les Creuades.[15][27]

Des del punt de vista polític, el terme mameluco pot referir-se a:

Antecedents

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En l'Iran oriental, la pràctica va començar en la dinastia samánida, la qual estava en constant conflicte fronteriç contra els llavors pobles tribals túrquicos d'Àsia Central. Este conflicte era vist des del punt de vista islàmic com una yihad (guerra santa) contra estos turcs pagans. En estes razias, pobres en botí, els ghāzī (guerrers de la fe islàmica) no obtenien més que esclaus turcs (presoners o comprats a atres turcs), que per les seues aptituts guerreres es va escomençar a utilisar-los en les forces samánidas. Estos primers mamelucos turcs, iranizados i islamisats, varen resultar ser de vital importància per les seues aptituts militars i varen aplegar a ocupar importants llocs polítics de confiança en el règim samánida. D'ací sorgirien els emirs mamelucos Alp Tegīn i Sebük Tegīn, fundadors de la dinastia Gaznávida.

L'historiador Daniel Pipes va argumentar que el primer indici de la classe militar mameluca va tindre les seues raïls en la pràctica de musulmans primerencs com Zubayr ibn al-Awwam o Uthmán ibn Affán, d'usar esclaus en la guerra. Tant al-Awwam com ibn Affán posseïen molts esclaus des d'abans de l'ascens del islam, i practicaven la mawla (manumisión islàmica d'esclaus).[28] L'eixèrcit zubayrida baix Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, fill de Zubayr, va utilisar a tals esclaus libertos durant la segona guerra civil musulmana.[28]


Els historiadors coincidixen que l'implementació massiva d'una classe militar esclava com la dels mamelucos sembla haver-se desenrollat en les societats islàmiques a partir del califato abasí de el IX en sèu en Bagdad, baix el califa abasí al-Muʿtaṣim.[29] Fins a la década de 1990, es creïa àmpliament que els primers mamelucos varen ser coneguts com Ghilman o Ghulam[30] (un atre terme àmpliament sinònim d'esclaus) i varen ser comprats pels califes abasíes, especialment al-Mu'tasim (833–842). A partir de el IX, la guàrdia califal va començar a ser nutrida, gràcies a la llealtat samánida, de mamelucos turcs, cridats ghilman (sing. ghulam). Els ghilmam eren entrenats i educats a costa del seu amo i podien guanyar la seua llibertat a través del seu dedicat servici. A ells se'ls obligava a casar-se en dònes esclaves turques, que varen ser elegides per a ells pels seus amos. Alguns ghilman semblen haver vixcut vides célibes. Estos varen ser introduïts durant el regnat del califa al-Mutásim (833-842), qui els va demostrar un gran favor i en ells va confiar el seu guàrdia personal. Pronte, estos esclaus militarisats, varen armar faccions dins de la cort califal pugnant i exigint alts salaris pels seus servicis. Es varen opondre a la població àrap nativa, i els consegüents disturbis contra estos ghilman en Bagdad varen obligar a a el-Mutásim a traslladar la seua capital a Samarra en 836. Els ghilman ràpidament varen acréixer el seu poder i la seua influència, i baix els dèbils governants que varen succeir a a el-Mutásim, es varen convertir en verdaders sobirans,

donant lloc a un cas similar a lo que va succeir en l'Imperi romà en la Guàrdia Pretoriana: es varen rebelar vàries voltes durant l'anomenada Anarquia de Samarra que va començar en 861, en l'assessinat del califa al-Mutawákkil (fill del-Mutásim) pels seus guàrdies ghilman turcs. Este havia assumit el poder recolzat per dos caps turcs, un dels quals va ser assessinat. El seu fill i successor, al-Muntásir (fill d'una esclava grega), implicat en l'assessinat del seu pare, va governar durant sis mesos abans de la seua mort, possiblement enverinat pels caps militars turcs. Va ser succeït per al-Musta'in (net del-Mutásim). Divisions dins del liderage militar ghulam turc varen permetre a a el-Musta'in fugir a Bagdad en 865 en el respal d'alguns caps turcs (Bugha al-Sharabi i Wasif al-Turki) i dels Tahiríes, pero el restant de l'eixèrcit turc va triar en Samarra a un nou califa en la persona d'al-Mu'tazz (segon fill del-Mutawákkil) i es va sitiar de forma terrible a Bagdad, forçant la capitulació de la ciutat en 866. Al-Musta'in va ser exiliat i eixecutat. Al-Mu'tazz va ser capaç i enèrgic, i va tractar de controlar als caps militars ghilman i excloure a estos militars de l'administració civil. Les seues polítiques varen ser resistides, i en juliol de 869 també va ser depost i assessinat. El seu successor, al-Muhtadi (fill del califa al-Wáthiq), també va tractar de reafirmar l'autoritat del califa, pero també va ser assessinat en juny de 870. En la mort del-Muhtadi i l'ascensió d'al-Mu'támid (tercer fill del-Mutawákkil), la facció turca liderada per Musa ibn Bugha al-Kabir, s'alie en el germà i regente del-Mu'támid, el príncip al-Muwaffaq, qui es va convertir en l'home fort de la cort califal, posant fi a la anarquia. El primer sistema mameluco, pròpiament dit, hauria segut un experiment a chicoteta escala del-Muwaffaq, combinant l'eficàcia com a guerrers en una fiabilitat millorada. El fet de que en 892, al-Mu'tami tornara a Bagdad no canvie res, ya que els ghilman turcs havien fet lo mateix poc abans. Encara que el califato abasí va conseguir una modesta recuperació en les décades següents, els problemes de la Anarquia de Samarra infligieron un gran i durador dany a les estructures i al prestigi del govern central abasí, encorajant i facilitant les tendències secessionistes i rebels de les províncies del califato. Un d'estos ghilman de Bagdad, Ahmad ibn Tulun, independisant a Egipte, fundaria una dinastia hereditària, la dels Tuluníes, duent a la dissolució del califato abasí a mitan del sigle X.

Despuix de la fragmentació del califato abasida, els esclaus militars, coneguts com mamelucos o ghilman, es varen convertir en la base de poder militar en tot lo món islàmic. El Califato fatimí d'Egipte va arrebatar a la força de les seues famílies a adolescents armenis, turcs, sudanés i coptos per a ser entrenats com a soldats-esclaus, que formarien el gros del seu eixèrcit i, a sovint, els quadros de la seua administració. El poderós visir Badr al-Jamali, per eixemple, fon un mameluco d'orige armeni. Un atre eixemple va ser el general fatimí Chauhar al-Siqilí, el fundador d'El Caire, que era un mameluco d'orige sicilià o eslau. En Iran i Iraq, la Dinastia búyida va utilisar esclaus turcs a lo llarc del seu imperi, com el rebel al-Basasiri, qui finalment va introduir als selyúcidas del sultà Tugrïl Beg en Bagdad, despuix d'intentar una fallanca rebelió chiïta en 1055. Quan els posteriors abasidas varen recuperar el control militar sobre Iraq, també varen confiar en els ghilman d'orige turc.

l'Imperi corasmio (1077-1231/1256), fon un fidel eixemple d'estat mameluco; la seua dinastia va ser fundada per Anūsh Tegīn Gharchāī, un antic esclau turc dels sultans selyúcidas, que va ser nomenat emir (governador) de Corasmia. El seu fill, Qutb ud-Dīn Muhammad I, es va convertir en el primer sah hereditari de Corasmia.


Un atre estat mameluco va ser el Sultanato de Delhi, fundat en 1210 en el nort de l'Índia pel general gúrida Qutb al-Din Aybak, un esclau d'orige turc que a la mort del seu senyor, el sultà Mu'izz ad-Dîn Muhammad Guri, es va independisar donant inici a un règim de mamelucos, denominats dels reis esclaus. Este règim, a diferència del mameluco egipcíac, disponia d'un territori recentment conquistat per l'islam, i a on, per tant, la majoria de la població era d'una atra religió (l'hindú); a banda, era d'una cultura i llenguage predominantment persa, diametralment opost a l'egipcíac, a on els seus súbdits eren, en la seua majoria, àraps musulmans.

L'esclavitut militar va seguir amprant-se en tot lo món islàmic fins a el XIX. En l'Imperi otomà, El devşanar-me o "recolecció" de jóvens esclaus per al Cos de jenízaros, va durar fins a el XVII, mentres que els règims basats en mamelucos varen prosperar en les províncies otomanes de l'Alce i d'Egipte fins a el XIX.

Pero el cas de major importància seria l'eixemple donat en Egipte durant el XIII.

Els mamelucos d'Egipte

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Els mamelucos d'Egipte provenien d'Ucrània i Rússia meridional. En un principi, eren del poble turc Kipchak o Cumano, i més tart de poblacions guerreres del Caucas, en la seua majoria circasianos. El comerç de mamelucos del Mar Negra estava a càrrec dels mercaders genoveses.

Aplegat a Egipte, i una volta admés en una escola (Hilqa o Tibaq) la tasca de la qual consistia en convertir-ho en mameluco, el jove captiu passava a estar baix un instructor que seria el responsable de la seua formació militar (al-furusiya), i baix la seua supervisió se li sometia a un adestrament especialment rigorós. Els mamelucos vivien dins de les seues guarnicions i passaven el seu temps entre ells. Els seus entreteniments incloïen events deportius com a competicions de tir en arc i presentacions d'habilitats de combat montades per lo manco una volta a la semana. L'entrenament intensiu i rigorós de cada nou recluta va ajudar a assegurar la continuïtat de les pràctiques mamelucas.

Una volta rebuda l'instrucció militar pel sultà o els seus caps, passaven de ser esclaus a hòmens lliures, si ben subjectes per llaços que recorden les fòrmules de servilisme del sistema feudal europeu. Entre els mamelucos estaven els pertanyents a una elite especial, la del cos de mamelucos reals, que havien segut comprats, instruïts i lliberats pel propi sultà, i tenien guarnició en la ciutat del El Caire.

Els sultans posseïen el major número de mamelucos, pero els emirs també podien tindre la seua pròpia força de mamelucos. Molts mamelucos varen pujar a altes posicions en tot l'imperi, incloent la jefatura de l'eixèrcit. Al principi el seu estatus no era hereditari i se'ls va impedir estrictament seguir l'ofici del seu pare. No obstant, en el temps, en llocs com Egipte, les forces mamelucas es varen vincular en les estructures existents de poder i varen obtindre una significativa cantitat d'influència sobre eixes estructures.

En Egipte, els mamelucos georgians conservaven el seu llengua materna. Eren conscients de la política de la regió del Caucas i rebien freqüents visites dels seus pares o atres parents. També enviaven regals als seus familiars o enviaven diners per a construir estructures útils (una torre defensiva o, inclús, una iglésia) en els seus llogarets natius en Geòrgia.

La seua igual procedència, l'us per ells de la mateixa llengua, distinta de la dels territoris a on s'instalaven, la seua mateixa condició militar, el seu reconegut prestigi en l'art de la guerra i l'història personal de cada u, similar als seus companyers, els varen fer convertir-se en un poder en sí mateixa que no va tardar en formar el seu propi sultanato.


El seu paper va ser crucial per a protegir a Síria (que reconquistaron), Egipte i Palestina del Imperi mongol, aixina com per a expulsar als creuats cristians. Varen mantindre la custòdia de les ciutats santes de La #Meca i Medina i es varen instalar en El Caire. No varen perseguir a les iglésies coptas ni a les comunitats judeues, encara que varen ser guardians del islam en el conjunt social. El final de la dinastia va aplegar en la derrota en 1517 davant Selim I, sultà del Imperi otomà, pero ya en anterioritat la pèrdua del control del tràfic comercial en Àsia —com a conseqüència de les noves rutes establides per Portugal a través del Cap de Bona Esperança— havien mermat la seua capacitat econòmica. Els mamelucos varen quedar relegats al lloc de beys com a governadors o en segons nivells de l'administració, encara que novament anirien recuperant la seua importància fins que, oficiosament, controlaven Egipte en el moment de la conquista per Napoleón en 1798.

Sultanato mameluco d'Egipte

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Erro en la seqüencia d'órdens: no existix el mòdul «Excerpt».

Atres règims mamelucos

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Àsia meridional

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Artícul principal → Dinastia mameluca (Delhi).

En 1206, el comandant mameluco de les forces musulmanes gurida en el subcontinent indi, Qutb al-Din Aibak, es va proclamar sultà, convertint-se en el primer sobirà de la Dinastia mameluca i del Delhi. Dita dinastia va durar fins a 1290.

Iraq

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Artícul principal → Dinastia mameluca (Iraq).

Els cossos mamelucos varen ser introduïts per primera volta en Iraq en 1702 per Hasan Pasha de Bagdad. Des de 1747 fins a 1831, Iraq va ser governat, en breus interrupcions, per oficials mamelucos d'orige georgià, que varen conseguir afirmar l'autonomia de la Sublim Porta, varen suprimir els tumults tribals, varen frenar el poder dels jenízaros, varen restaurar l'orde i varen introduir un programa de modernisació de l'economia i l'eixèrcit. En 1831 els otomans varen derrocar a Dawud Pasha, l'últim governant mameluco, i reimpusieron el control directe sobre Iraq.

Baix Napoleón

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El primer esquadró de mamelucos va ser format en 1801 per 240 soldats, que varen retornar en l'Eixèrcit d'Orient de l'expedició en Egipte. Numerosos mamelucos varen formar part de l'eixèrcit napoleònic, entre ells Rustam Raça, qui seria el sirviente personal i guardaespales de Napoleón Bonaparte. Varen constituir un esquadró adscrit als caçadors a cavall de la Guàrdia Imperial i varen servir en Bèlgica. Despuix de la batalla de Austerlitz, es varen convertir en un regiment.

Els mamelucos varen entrar en Espanya en març de 1808, aplegant a Madrit. Varen formar part de l'escolta d'honor del Gran Duc de Berg, Joachim Murat, i varen ser acuartelados en Carabanchel, a on els va sorprendre l'alçament del 2 de maig. Despuix de la caiguda del Primer Imperi, es varen dispersar. Molts d'ells varen ser assessinats en Marsella durant el Terror Blanco.


Solien anar molt ben armats: disponien d'un trabuco, una cimitarra, dos pistoles que solien dur al cinto junt a un punyal, i una maza d'armes o un astral que duyen pendent del arzón de la cadira de montar.

Art mameluco

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La decoració es realisa en incrustaciones de pedres de diferents colors, aixina com en un exquisit treball en fusta que va consistir en incrustaciones de motius geomètrics radiants fets en marqueteria. Es va utilisar també l'esmalt i el vidre, i lo que és més important, les incrustaciones de metal. D'este periodo daten el Batisteri de Sant Luis, un dels objectes islàmics més famosos, realisat per l'orfebre Muhammad ibn al-Zayn i el Tonellet de Rothschild.

Arquitectura mameluca

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Erro en la seqüencia d'órdens: no existix el mòdul «Excerpt».

«Mamelucos» brasilers

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Artícul principal → Mameluco (raça).

Potser en la mateixa etimologia àrap (mamlūk: «posseït») aünada per la similitut fonètica a una paraula aborigen (maloka: «llogaret»), en Brasil es va cridar mamelucos o mamalucos (o, després, malucos) als conjunts de guerrers aborigen (principalment tupíes) o mestizos (caboclos) que lluitaven a les órdens dels portuguesos o dels bandeirantes brasilers, especialment efectuant incursions (malocas) per a capturar esclaus d'atres #ètnia aborigen, en especial els de orígens guaraníes que vivien en les Missions.

Bibliografia

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Ayalon, David, Li Phénomene mamelouk dans l’Orient islamique, París, PUF, 1996. ISBN 2-13-047806-9.

Referències

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  1. ↑ Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)», The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–284. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Paguen origins, purchased from Central Àsia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).»
  2. ↑ «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide págs. 332–334. Oxford Business Group (2012). «The Mamluks, who descendiu from senar-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, llaure revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucas and Central Àsia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most llaure thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.»
  3. ↑ (2019) «The "Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon" – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines», Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures (vol. 8), Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 219–244. doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006. ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3. «Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later Abbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of Muslim thinking on slavery since the early days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mind Hegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.»
  4. ↑ “Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court” . Muqarnas 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13–20. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.2307/1523052. ISSN 0732-2992. “The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Éufrates, from Cilicia to the Mar Aràbiga and the Suen, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Mediterràneu oriental and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy plaus, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and senar-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the senar-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongoles, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbis, Hungarians.”
  5. ↑ (2005) «The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Iāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State», Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies" (vol. 10) (en en), London and New York City: Routledge, pp. 27–41. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0009008X. ISBN 978-0-7007-1393-6.
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)», The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–284. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Paguen origins, purchased from Central Àsia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).»
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide págs. 332–334. Oxford Business Group (2012). «The Mamluks, who descendiu from senar-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, llaure revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucas and Central Àsia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most llaure thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.»
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 «Mamluk}», , Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.»
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 (1998) «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households», The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society (en en), Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 32–54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0.
  10. ↑ “Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court” . Muqarnas 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13–20. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.2307/1523052. ISSN 0732-2992. “The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Éufrates, from Cilicia to the Mar Aràbiga and the Suen, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Mediterràneu oriental and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy plaus, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and senar-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the senar-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongoles, Avars, Circassians, [[Poble georgiano|Georgians]], Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbis, Hungarians.”
  11. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and Its Culture. New York: Macmillan, 2008.
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)», The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–284. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Paguen origins, purchased from Central Àsia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).»
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide págs. 332–334. Oxford Business Group (2012). «The Mamluks, who descendiu from senar-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, llaure revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucas and Central Àsia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most llaure thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.»
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 «Mamluk}», , Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. Consultat el 2023-04-04. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.»
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 “Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court” . Muqarnas 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13–20. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.2307/1523052. ISSN 0732-2992. “The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Éufrates, from Cilicia to the Mar Aràbiga and the Suen, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Mediterràneu oriental and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy plaus, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and senar-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the senar-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongoles, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbis, Hungarians.”
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 (1998) «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households», The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society (en en), Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 32–54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0.
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)», The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–284. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Paguen origins, purchased from Central Àsia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).»
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide págs. 332–334. Oxford Business Group (2012). «The Mamluks, who descendiu from senar-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, llaure revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucas and Central Àsia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most llaure thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.»
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 «Mamluk}», , Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.»
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 “Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court” . Muqarnas 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13–20. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.2307/1523052. ISSN 0732-2992. “The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Éufrates, from Cilicia to the Mar Aràbiga and the Suen, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Mediterràneu oriental and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy plaus, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and senar-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the senar-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongoles, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbis, Hungarians.”
  21. ↑ (2005) «The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Iāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State», Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies" (vol. 10), London and New York City: Routledge, pp. 27–41. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0009008X. ISBN 978-0-7007-1393-6.
  22. ↑ 22,0 22,1 (1998) «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households», The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society (en en), Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press, pp. 32–54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0.
  23. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870, Cambridge University Press, pp. 192.
  24. ↑ (2019) «The "Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon" – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines», Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures (vol. 8), Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 219–244. doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006. ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3. «Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later Abbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of Muslim thinking on slavery since the early days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mind Hegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.»
  25. ↑ Ayalon, David (1979). The Mamlūk military society, Variorum Reprints. ISBN 978-0-86078-049-6.
  26. ↑ Mamlūk
  27. ↑ Asbridge, Thomas. «The Crusades Episode 3». BBC.
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 Pipes 1981, pàg. 117–121
  29. ↑ «Mamluk}», , Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.»
  30. ↑ (2019) «The "Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon" – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines», Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures (vol. 8), Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 219–244. doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006. ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3. «Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later Abbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of Muslim thinking on slavery since the early days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mind Hegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.»

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